Taking steps together now
The Rathenau Instituut advises dividing the decision-making process regarding radioactive waste into phases, involving society in this process, and starting now. Photo: Amber Beckers/ANP/Hollandse Hoogte

We advise the government to take action now and think ahead, instead of reasoning backwards from the year 2100. This can be done by dividing the decision-making process into phases, which can last from several years to several decades. In the first phase, a disposal programme needs to be drawn up. For each phase, the government must determine in consultation with society what knowledge, policy, public participation and funding are needed so that each phase can end with a decision that brings us closer to a solution.
This advisory report shows how we can take steps together now.
Summary
Radioactive waste must be safely isolated from humans and the environment until it is no longer hazardous. Depending on the type of waste, this can take anywhere from a few hours to hundreds of thousands of years. The Netherlands temporarily stores its radioactive waste above ground in the province of Zeeland at the Central Organisation For Radioactive Waste (Centrale Organisatie Voor Radioactief Afval, COVRA). The government wants to decide on a disposal method and location for a definitive solution around the year 2100. The government envisions a geological repository in around 2130. The decision-making process on this solution still needs to be defined.
At the request of the State Secretary for Infrastructure and Water Management, this report provides advise on the decision-making process and ways to involve society. The Rathenau Instituut argues that postponing a decision until 2100 is unwise and undesirable, also in the light of the government's nuclear ambitions. For example, the Netherlands risks missing out on opportunities for international cooperation and placing unreasonable burdens on future generations. To prevent this, the government must begin implementing a step-by-step and participatory approach. The recommendations in this advisory report are intended to support such an approach.
The advisory report is based on the results of a five-year research and dialogue programme. As part of this programme, the Rathenau Instituut investigated how the Netherlands handled its radioactive waste after World War II, how other European countries decide on the disposal of their waste, what laws and regulations govern radioactive waste management in the Netherlands, and what knowledge is needed for decision-making. The Rathenau Instituut also organised workshops with experts and stakeholders, as well as focus groups with citizens on how the Netherlands can effectively shape decision-making.
The current situation in the Netherlands
COVRA stores Dutch radioactive waste for a period of at least 100 years. Around 2130, the government plans to place the waste that is still radioactive by then in a geological repository. This involves storing the waste in stable geological layers at a depth of several hundred metres. The Netherlands has salt and clay layers that could potentially be suitable for this purpose. Other options include choosing an alternative disposal method around 2100, should one become available, or continue with above-ground storage. The government plans to use the period up to 2100 to undertake several actions, including to learn from experiences in other countries, carry out research and build capacity to finance a final repository.
Four policy principles apply to radioactive waste management in the Netherlands:
- minimising the generation of radioactive waste;
- safe management of radioactive waste;
- no unreasonable burdens on the shoulders of future generations; and
- the causers of radioactive waste are responsible for the costs of its management.
The government employs a dual strategy for long-term management of radioactive waste. This implies that a national route towards disposal will be elaborated while at the same time the possibility of collaborating with other European Member States in establishing a disposal site will not be excluded. The government also considers it important to involve society in decision-making.
Time for action
Over the past decades, the Netherlands has developed policy, drafted legislation and conducted research for the purpose of decision-making on the long-term management of radioactive waste. However, many decisions are still required before the Netherlands has a definitive solution. Four processes are particularly important in this context, organising: (1) decision-making, (2) knowledge, (3) participation and (4) financing. The Rathenau Instituut concludes that action is needed now for these processes to contribute effectively to decision-making.
The policy of deciding on a definitive management method and location for long-term radioactive waste management until around 2100 is leading to a lack of urgency and direction. Several international organisations, experts and stakeholders are concerned about this situation because it could result in: suitable sites becoming unavailable, insufficient knowledge development, missed opportunities for multinational cooperation and passing on unnecessary burdens to future generations. In addition, the nuclear ambitions of the current and previous governments may increase the volume of waste for which the Netherlands will need to find a solution. It is therefore time for more action in decision-making.
To enhance clarity on decision-making, the State Secretary for Infrastructure and Water Management announced in late 2022 that a roadmap would be developed for a final repository. The aim of this roadmap is to outline the steps needed to realise a final repository. The State Secretary also asked the Rathenau Instituut to advise on the decision-making process.
Four recommendations for step-by-step and participatory decision-making
In this advisory report, the Rathenau Instituut makes four overarching recommendations for a participatory, step-by-step decision-making process. In this way, decision-making can start immediately and society can have their say while the options are still open. The aim of this approach is to democratically and effectively achieve a widely supported solution for the long-term management of radioactive waste. The recommendations are:
- lay down a participatory, step-by-step approach now;
- determine through a participatory process which disposal methods the Netherlands wishes to explore and further develop;
- divide the decision-making process into five phases; and
- organise decision-making, public participation, knowledge and financing at each step.
Lay down a participatory, step-by-step approach now
The Rathenau Instituut recommends that the government establishes a participatory, step-by-step approach to decision-making in the 2025 National Programme for the Management of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel. This programme describes how the Netherlands intends to ensure safe management now and in the future. The decision-making phases outlined in this advisory report can be adopted by the government within the programme, providing an overview of the different phases without laying them down in detail.
This approach differs from the government’s current strategy of setting an end goal and reasoning backwards, which involved only developing a roadmap for a final repository and adhering to the timeframes of 2100 and 2130. In contrast, a step-by-step and participatory approach reasons forwards. Dividing the process into small steps creates focus and flexibility. It allows for a quicker start and makes the process more manageable, making it easier to sustain progress. Moreover, this approach helps to deal with the uncertainties associated with long-term decision-making.
Starting now does not imply rushing, but means that decisions regarding disposal method(s) and timeframe(s) follow from the steps taken in consultation with society. This approach enables the government to avoid prematurely selecting solutions or choices that may later prove unsuitable or lack public support
Determine through a participatory process which disposal methods the Netherlands wants to explore further
The Rathenau Instituut recommends exploring multiple disposal methods and associated routes. The government currently has the intention to develop solely the route to a geological repository. However, exploring various options is important in order to have alternatives available if geological disposal proves unfeasible or undesirable, or if better techniques become available to manage all or part of the waste. In addition, considering the current nuclear ambitions, it may prove wiser to manage high-level waste and low and intermediate-level waste by different methods, such as geological disposal combined with surface disposal.
Exploring different disposal methods also enables society to participate in decision-making while choices are still open. This is a recommendation made by international organisations. The Rathenau Instituut recommends that the government draw up a disposal programme that includes several disposal methods to be further researched and developed and a corresponding prioritisation of methods. The government should coordinate and evaluate the disposal programme. For evaluation points, it can use the National Programme review and progress reports and key decisions. This approach will enable interim learning and, where necessary, adjusting, stopping or adding roadmaps.
The Rathenau Instituut recommends that the disposal programme should also explicitly state which multinational options the Netherlands wants to explore, and that opportunities for multinational cooperation should also be considered when developing the national roadmaps. The government can announce that it will prepare a disposal programme in the 2025 National Programme, in which it can also mention some alternative disposal options that could be included in the programme besides geological disposal. It is crucial to then assess the feasibility and desirability of these options in proper consultation with society and to develop and adopt the disposal programme.
Divide the decision-making process into five phases
The Rathenau Instituut recommends dividing the participatory and step-by-step approach to decision-making into five phases.
- Initiation phase. The aim of this phase is to develop a disposal programme that has broad public and political support. This phase can commence after the 2025 National Programme has been adopted and is expected to take five to ten years. This will allow time to update policies and legislation, research and assess various disposal methods, develop roadmaps and consult a broad public on these matters.
- Development and siting phase. In this phase, the implementation of the disposal programme starts. When a roadmap is successfully implemented, this phase moves step by step towards a location for the realisation of the chosen disposal method. Experiences in other countries show that this is a socially and politically sensitive process. Involvement of decentralised authorities and local communities is therefore essential.
- Construction and operation phase. This phase starts after approval of a licence application to implement the disposal method at a particular location. This phase focuses on the construction of a radioactive waste disposal facility, and if found safe, placement of the waste.
- Closure phase. In this phase, a facility is closed if necessary. This requires agreement on the period of retrievability, the method of closure and any decommissioning of the placement facility.
- Post-closure phase. In this phase after closure of the disposal facility, passive safe management takes place, requiring no more efforts to maintain safety. However, a decision may be made to continue monitoring the facility's environment for a certain period of time.
These five phases are similar to timetables recommended by international organisations for the implementation of a geological repository. A key difference is that the Rathenau Instituut recommends establishing a disposal programme with multiple disposal methods in the initiation phase. Each disposal option will thus have its own decision-making process and roadmap. Phases 2 to 5 will be developed for each option with their own timeline. This is because research into geological disposal may take more time than research on surface disposal. Moreover, not every option needs to go through all the phases: they can be halted if an option proves undesirable.
Organise decision-making, knowledge, participation and financing at each step
The Rathenau Instituut recommends establishing how decision-making, knowledge, public participation and financing will be organised at the beginning of each phase. These four processes are important to arrive at informed and legitimate decisions.
This advisory report presents generic recommendations and action points for each of the four processes during the initiation phase (see Chapter 3 and, for an overview, Appendices 1 and 2). The action points relate to the start and implementation of the initiation phase. See below for a summary.
Start of the initiation phase
At the beginning of the initiation phase, the government needs to establish how the four processes mentioned above will be organised within that phase. This means clarifying what the decision-making in that phase is about, who can take part, when and for what purpose, what knowledge is needed at different times and what resources are needed for this. The government also needs to determine how this will be organised and assign tasks and responsibilities throughout the process.
It is essential that experts and stakeholders are involved in the government's decisions at an early stage. Such discussions can be supported by an independent party with appropriate expertise that is politically neutral and separate from the companies and institutions that produce radioactive waste. It is important to anchor the approach in policy and, when appropriate, legislation, as this can help secure commitment from the government and parliament, and increase the legitimacy of decision-making.
The government holds primary responsibility for organising the initiation phase. This involves significant work, not only to organise decision-making, but also to organise participation, knowledge and financing. The Rathenau Instituut therefore advises the government to expand the currently limited capacity and expertise within the responsible ministry.
The approach should include arrangements on the following.
- Organising decision-making. The approach to decision-making should clarify what steps will be taken in the initiation phase, what principles apply to decision-making and who is responsible for implementation. The government may outsource specific tasks needed to achieve this approach to an independent organisation.
- Organising public participation. The approach to public participation should clarify how participation activities and processes tie in with each other and with the steps in the initiation phase. It should also be clear who coordinates and implements the approach to participation. An independent organisation with appropriate expertise can be hired to implement participation. The approach should also clarify how public participation will be evaluated.
- Organising knowledge. The approach for knowledge consists of a knowledge agenda in line with the needs in the initiation phase and agreements on who will implement it. The Rathenau Instituut recommends using an independent party with the necessary expertise to develop this knowledge agenda. The knowledge agenda should guide research and contribute to better information provision, tie in with national and international initiatives and encourage diversity in knowledge and knowledge providers.
- Organising finances. Organising all these processes requires funding. The approach to finance therefore needs to include a transparent cost estimate for the initiation phase and clarify who pays what and how monitoring will be arranged.
Implementation of the initiation phase
The initiation phase should lead to a disposal programme. This is done by determining through a participatory process which disposal methods the Netherlands wants to further explore through various roadmaps. For this, the Rathenau Instituut recommends first updating and elaborating on the policy principles described above. These principles should guide the selection and assessment of disposal options, but are currently not sufficiently developed to be used as a benchmark for this purpose.
Once it has been decided which roadmaps should be drawn up, the next step is to determine how decision-making, knowledge, public participation and financing will be organised for each of these roadmaps. This mainly involves overarching agreements on who is responsible for these processes and on the substantive elaboration and coordination of these processes. Some roadmaps will last for many decades, so it is essential that these agreements ensure continuity.
From a certain point onwards, research into a disposal method is inextricably linked to the location selection process, for example due to exploratory drilling or the need for an underground research facility. Therefore, when drawing up the disposal programme, it is essential to establish agreements on organising decision-making, knowledge, participation and financing in this regard. These steps are socially and politically sensitive. Special attention to the involvement and knowledge position of decentralised authorities and local communities is crucial here.
Finally, the Rathenau Instituut recommends reaching agreements on the periodic evaluation of the disposal programme. The 10-year updates of the National Programme present an appropriate opportunity, as do the three-yearly reports on the programme’s implementation. It must be clear what criteria will be used to assess disposal options and how scientists, businesses, civil society organisations and citizens will be involved.
Short explanatory video (Dutch)
In this video, we briefly explain the main findings of our research.